All research

Who says so?

All sources

Every claim on the research pages traces to one of these sources, grouped the way the evidence story runs. Each link opens the publisher's record.

Stress & learning

Stress can disrupt thinking — and its effects can outlast the moment.

  1. Arnsten, A. F. T. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410–422. doi.org/10.1038/nrn2648

  2. Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). The effects of acute stress on core executive functions: A meta-analysis and comparison with cortisol. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 651–668. doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.038

  3. Vogel, S., & Schwabe, L. (2016). Learning and memory under stress: implications for the classroom. npj Science of Learning, 1, 16011. doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.11

  4. Madigan, D. J., & Kim, L. E. (2021). Does teacher burnout affect students? A systematic review of its association with academic achievement and student-reported outcomes. International Journal of Educational Research, 105, 101714. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101714

  5. Jennings, P. A., Brown, J. L., Frank, J. L., Doyle, S., Oh, Y., Davis, R., Rasheed, D., DeWeese, A., DeMauro, A. A., Cham, H., & Greenberg, M. T. (2017). Impacts of the CARE for Teachers program on teachers' social and emotional competence and classroom interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 1010–1028. doi.org/10.1037/edu0000187

What these studies found

Co-regulation

Regulation is taught before it's owned.

  1. Murray, D. W., Rosanbalm, K., Christopoulos, C., & Hamoudi, A. (2015). Self-regulation and toxic stress: Foundations for understanding self-regulation from an applied developmental perspective. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, OPRE Report #2015-21. acf.gov/opre/report/self-regulation-and-toxic-stress-foundations-understanding-self-regulation-applied

  2. Rosanbalm, K. D., & Murray, D. W. (2017). Caregiver co-regulation across development: A practice brief. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, OPRE Brief #2017-80. acf.gov/opre/report/co-regulation-birth-through-young-adulthood-practice-brief

  3. Murray, D. W., & Rosanbalm, K. (2017). Self-Regulation Snap Shot #4: A focus on middle-school aged youth. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, OPRE Report #2018-13. acf.gov/opre/report/self-regulation-snap-shot-4-focus-middle-school-aged-youth

What these studies found

Choice

The goal is a student who resets on their own.

  1. Royer, D. J., Lane, K. L., Cantwell, E. D., & Messenger, M. L. (2017). A systematic review of the evidence base for instructional choice in K–12 settings. Behavioral Disorders, 42(3), 89–107. doi.org/10.1177/0198742916688655

  2. Bruhn, A., McDaniel, S., & Kreigh, C. (2015). Self-monitoring interventions for students with behavior problems: A systematic review of current research. Behavioral Disorders, 40(2), 102–121. doi.org/10.17988/BD-13-45.1

What these studies found

Small routines

Small routines, repeated, change classrooms.

  1. Embry, D. D., & Biglan, A. (2008). Evidence-based kernels: Fundamental units of behavioral influence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(3), 75–113. doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0036-x

  2. Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351–380. doi.org/10.1353/etc.0.0007

  3. Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Poduska, J. M., Ialongo, N. S., Wang, W., Toyinbo, P., Petras, H., Ford, C., Windham, A., & Wilcox, H. C. (2008). Effects of a universal classroom behavior management program in first and second grades on young adult behavioral, psychiatric, and social outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95(Suppl. 1), S5–S28. doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.004

What these studies found

Transitions

Transitions are where lesson minutes leak.

  1. Hine, J. F., Ardoin, S. P., & Foster, T. E. (2015). Decreasing transition times in elementary school classrooms: Using computer-assisted instruction to automate intervention components. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(3), 495–510. doi.org/10.1002/jaba.233 · Figure reported by University of Georgia release (via ScienceDaily)

  2. Arlin, M. (1979). Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 16(1), 42–56. doi.org/10.3102/00028312016001042

  3. Colvin, G., Sugai, G., Good, R. H., III, & Lee, Y.-Y. (1997). Using active supervision and precorrection to improve transition behaviors in an elementary school. School Psychology Quarterly, 12(4), 344–363. doi.org/10.1037/h0088967

What these studies found

Breaks & matching

Short activity breaks bring students back on task.

  1. Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, A. T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006). Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38(12), 2086–2094. doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000235359.16685.a3

  2. Watson, A., Timperio, A., Brown, H., Best, K., & Hesketh, K. D. (2017). Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, 114. doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0569-9

  3. Albulescu, P., Macsinga, I., Rusu, A., Sulea, C., Bodnaru, A., & Tulbure, B. T. (2022). “Give me a break!” A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of micro-breaks for increasing well-being and performance. PLOS ONE, 17(8), e0272460. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272460

  4. Sarver, D. E., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J., Raiker, J. S., & Friedman, L. M. (2015). Hyperactivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Impairing deficit or compensatory behavior?. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(7), 1219–1232. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0011-1

What these studies found

Breathing & BLS

Two calming techniques with early evidence behind them.

  1. Laborde, S., Allen, M. S., Borges, U., Dosseville, F., Hosang, T. J., Iskra, M., Mosley, E., Salvotti, C., Spolverato, L., Zammit, N., & Javelle, F. (2022). Effects of voluntary slow breathing on heart rate and heart rate variability: A systematic review and a meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 138, 104711. doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104711

  2. Balban, M. Y., Neri, E., Kogon, M. M., Weed, L., Nouriani, B., Jo, B., Holl, G., Zeitzer, J. M., Spiegel, D., & Huberman, A. D. (2023). Brief structured respiration practices enhance mood and reduce physiological arousal. Cell Reports Medicine, 4(1), 100895. doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100895

  3. Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44(2), 231–239. doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001

What these studies found

Mixed evidence

What schools have found — both ways.

  1. Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52–66. doi.org/10.1037/a0038454

  2. Kuyken, W., Ball, S., Crane, C., et al. (MYRIAD Team) (2022). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: the MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 25(3), 99–109. doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396

What these studies found

Measurement

If it works, you should be able to see it.

  1. Chafouleas, S. M., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & Christ, T. J. (2009). Direct Behavior Rating (DBR): An emerging method for assessing social behavior within a tiered intervention system. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 34(4), 195–200. doi.org/10.1177/1534508409340391

  2. Shapiro, E. S. (2011). Academic skills problems fourth edition workbook (Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools). Guilford Press, ISBN 978-1-60918-021-8. books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9781609180218

What these studies found

How we use evidence

  • We quote numbers exactly as the authors report them, with the sample and setting beside them.
  • Where evidence comes from adults, labs or therapy, we say so on the claim itself.
  • Every source says where it stops. Mind Circuit's own testing is reported separately, as our own evidence.
  • If we could not find a named, checkable study for a claim, we removed the claim.

What we removed

  • An unattributed “2025 systematic review of 40 studies” on teacher burnout.
  • An unattributed “2026 meta-analysis” on giftedness and sensitivity.
  • A widely repeated “20–35% of the school day is transitions” figure we could not trace to a study.
  • “Stress takes the thinking brain offline” — stress can disrupt thinking; it doesn't switch it off.

Educational use onlyThese pages summarize published research for educators. They are not medical or psychological advice. Mind Circuit is an educational classroom tool, not therapy; if a student's distress is persistent or impairing, involve your school counselor or a qualified professional.

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